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This organization of citizen-soldiers was created in early July 1789 on the suggestion of the electors of the city of Paris. They wanted to replace the traditional bourgeois militia with an organization that would allow them to resist the massing of regular troops by the King. After 14 July, the Marquis de Lafayette was named the organization’s commander. In July and August, cities and towns throughout France imitated Paris, setting up their troops of the National Guard. The guard chose to “federate” and through an invitation of the Paris Commune, representatives of the regular army and municipal National Guards met in Paris on 14 July 1790. This festival of the federation was one of the high points of the early years of the Revolution. Old regime France has frequently been described as a society of orders in which individuals and families had certain status in a hierarchy of social categories. Although used interchangeably here and elsewhere with the three estates— clergy, noble, and Third—orders also referred to divisions within the estates. Further, social strata often transcended all these categories, in part because of blurred boundaries between them, making a strict classification by “order” or “estate” difficult. By insisting on electing deputies by estates in the calling of the Estates-General, the government highlighted the tensions between the legal definitions and the actual situation. A newspaper published most notably by Jacques- René Hébert from 1790 to March 1794, when he was executed. The paper was named after Père Dûchesne, a fictional character who claimed to speak for the sans-culottes of Paris and the popular movement more generally. The paper died with its author, but the figure lived on in French popular culture. born Novfember 2 1755 in Vienna, Austria. She was the youngest daughter. She married the crown prince of France in 1770. Four years later she became queen. when her husband became King. King Loius XVI. The parlements’ complaints about a royal edict that explained why they refused to register it. Remonstrances were an important means of publicizing the judges’ resistance to the monarchy and a method of delaying the implementation of measures they opposed.
 * NATIONAL GUARD**
 * ORDER**
 * PÈRE DÛCHESNE**
 * QUEEN MARIE ANTOINETTE**
 * REMONSTRANCE**

Old regime law court for civil and criminal cases in southern France as well as the jurisdiction under its control. In northern France, the equivalent institution was called the bailliage. These jurisdictions elected deputies to the Estates- General. Signed 27 October 1797, between France and Austria after Napoleon Bonaparte’s Italian campaign. Following a truce agreed on in March and a preliminary agreement with the Habsburgs signed at Leoben, this treaty went against the Directory’s wishes for gains in Belgium and along the Rhine in exchange for Italy. Leoben gave Belgium to France and recognized the republican governments set up by France in Italy, giving compensation to Austria at Venice’s expense. Bonaparte seized Venice to make the treaty possible. The Directory accepted the treaty to avoid giving a fresh impetus to royalism, which played on French war-weariness. This treaty was little more than an armed truce, though, since Austria was only awaiting a more favorable moment to resume its war against France. A papal proclamation of 1713 solicited by Louis XIV, which condemned many of the central ideas of the Jansenists. It touched off a serious conflict between the judges of the parlements who resented the interference of the pope, preferring to assert “Gallican liberties,” meaning that the French church did not have to submit to papal requirements. By adopting the Jansenist cause, the judges set the stage for a century-long conflict with the royal and ecclesiastical hierarchy. Ownership and heritability of an office. Sold by the state to raise money, these offices, mostly in the judicial apparatus and the administration, were retained in exchange for an annual tax of one-sixtieth of the value (the Paulette). These offices provided access to power and opportunities for profit. The more important offices, and thus the most expensive, also conferred personal noble status on the holder that became hereditary, generally after three generations. Through venality of office many bourgeoisie could hope for eventual noble status, which provided an important avenue of social mobility; yet as a governmental system it was inefficient because it made it very difficult to administer government policy consistently. Venal officeholders, treating their posts as property, could better resist general directives.
 * SÉNÉCHAUSSÉE**
 * TREATY OF CAMPO-FORMIO**
 * UNIGENITUS**
 * VENALITY**

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